BOOK EXCERPT
FROM ...

RESPONSES TO RELEASES

in

RESIDENTIAL, INDUSTRIAL,

and

PUBLIC BUILDINGS & LOCATIONS

By
Michael E. Galuszka

2001

© 2001 by Michael E. Galuszka

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to extend sincere appreciation to Leah Desmarais and Tammy Calligandes for their assistance with the photography and computer work needed to put this work together.

Many thanks are also due to George Carrigan, Paul Lockwood and Sara Johnson for their review of the draft document. They have made many valuable notations and corrections, and offered expert advice.

DEDICATION

The author would like to dedicate this work to all the individuals in New Hampshire who put aside their own comfort and convenience to respond to the call for a HazMat response, regardless of the time, weather, or other personal commitments. Their willingness to do so is critical to protecting the health and welfare of their fellow citizens.

Additionally, the author dedicates this work to the spouses of these responders, especially my own, Loretta. Without their support, little could be accomplished.

Editors's Note

This book was originally developed for New Hampshire residents. References to, and contact information for, New Hampshire agencies should be ignored by readers in other states. Your state will have similar agencies, and a list of contacts for each state will be found in Appendix 7.

EXCERPT NOTE

Only the links in chapter one will be active here. In the electronic book version the entire index will be active.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Appendices

CHAPTER 1

The Element Mercury

Metallic mercury is an elemental metal with some properties that are not commonly associated with metals and which give mercury some of its interest and appeal.

Now the substance of Cinnabar is such that the more it is heated, the more exquisite are its sublimations. Cinnabar will become mercury, and passing through a series of other sublimations, it is again turned into cinnabar, and thus it enables man to enjoy eternal life. [1]

While no longer thought to be a key to eternal life, mercury remains a highly interesting element. First of all, mercury is a liquid at room temperature. With a freezing point of negative 38 degrees F (-38.85 degrees C) and a boiling point of 675 degrees F (356.6 degrees C), elemental mercury will almost always be a liquid when encountered in an every day environment. Hence, its common use in thermometers.

It also has a high surface tension (480 dynes/cm) which causes it to form a high profile droplet. When elemental mercury is spilled, it characteristically forms many "beads" or droplets which are relatively tall compared to the bead's circumference. In comparison, water will form low, flat droplets when spilled on a hard surface.

Another property of elemental mercury is its high density of 13.59 grams per cubic centimeter (also expressed as a specific gravity of 13.59 which means it is 13.59 times "heavier" than water). When picking up even a small container of mercury, one of the first impressions is its weight. This property is what makes mercury very useful in barometers and other pressure measuring devices.

As a metal, elemental mercury is an excellent conductor of electricity. Combined with its liquid state, this property makes mercury useful in electrical switching devices. Contained in a sealed, non-conductive (usually glass) tube with electrodes, mercury can conduct an electrical current when the switching device is in such a position that the liquid mercury will be in contact with both electrodes. Moving the device in such a way as to cause the mercury to flow away from one or both of the electrodes will break the contact and interrupt the flow of electrical power. Such switching devices are used in a number of applications, including non-electrical thermostats. It can also can be used in triggering explosives. A mercury switch installed as part of the detonation circuit allows the circuit to be completed when the explosive device is moved so as to cause the mercury to flow and make contact with the two electrodes. This is not a common commercial or industrial application, but is a concern with illegal/terrorist explosives.

Mercury may be found in a pure state in nature, but is more commonly found as the ore, cinnabar. This reddish ore is found in California and Nevada in this country as well as in Spain, Italy, Mexico and Yugoslavia [2]. The ore is mercuric sulfide (HgS). The reddish powder of pulverized cinnabar readily separates into silvery mercury and sulfur which is given off as a nearly invisible gas when heated in air. Continued heating causes the silvery mercury to change to an oxide of mercury which is also reddish, and was mistakenly thought to be cinnabar by early chemists. This impressive, though misunderstood process was a favorite demonstration of Alchemists in Medieval times. Commercially, cinnabar is processed by heat, distilling the mercury. Mercury can be recycled by re-distillation.

Table 1.1 Properties of Elemental Mercury

consolidated from [2], [3], and [4]

Mercury is used in a wide array of applications. It is commonly used in thermometers, barometers, and blood pressure cuffs. Such devices have been widely used in residential, health care and educational settings. Due to mercury's high toxicity, many of these devices are being phased out of such use and are being replaced with electronic or other less toxic alternatives. Elemental mercury will also be found in electrical equipment as switching devices, including home, non-electrical thermostats. It is used in "silent" switches and switches found in chest freezers and oven doors. Commercially, mercury is used in the manufacture of chlorine and sodium hydroxide and in the mining of gold. Mercury compounds, some much more toxic than elemental mercury, are used in pesticides, health care and beauty products, lighting (as in mercury vapor bulbs and fluorescent light bulbs), batteries, and in the nuclear industry as a neutron absorber. Mercury was also commonly used in amalgam dental fillings. A number of these uses are being discontinued or the amount of mercury used reduced due to the high toxicity of this element. Still, mercury continues to be used in significant quantities.

Toxicity

In discussing the toxicity of mercury, it is important to understand that different forms of mercury have different toxicity. While elemental mercury is very toxic, some compounds containing mercury are much more so. Dimethyl mercury for example is lethal in minute quantities [5]. Other mercury compounds are considered much less toxic. However, all forms of mercury are considered poisonous [6]. In dealing with mercury compounds, one has to research the particular material to establish the toxicity and the proper personal protective equipment needed to handle it. In this discussion, we will be concentrating on elemental mercury.

Like most other toxic materials, the health impacts from elemental mercury will depend on the concentration exposed to and the duration of the exposure. As either or both of these factors increase, the biological impact also increases. Conversely, as these factors decrease, the impact is lessened. This is why minimizing exposure times and reducing the concentrations involved are important when remediating an elemental mercury spill. Consequently, evacuation of the affected area (while taking care not to spread the contamination) and ventilating the area to the outside atmosphere are good first steps to take until the situation is thoroughly assessed.

When mercury is released into the environment, it can persist for long periods of time. In water bodies, it will sink and remain on the bottom. Mercury does not readily move through soil or sediments [6]. As a result, spills of elemental mercury to soil results in generally limited areas of contamination as long as the mercury contaminated soil is not disturbed. One of the greatest concerns is that when mercury is released to the environment, the affected area is disturbed and the contamination is spread. Humans and animals walking through spilled mercury can distribute the mercury over large areas, significantly increasing the difficulty and expense of remediation. Other forms of disturbance such as vacuuming with regular vacuum cleaners and shop vacs will also spread contamination over large areas. The bags or filters will not capture the mercury and the exhaust will disburses it over a large area. Sweeping with a broom will break up beads of mercury into smaller beads and can send them across considerable distances.

Microorganisms as well as natural chemical processes can change elemental mercury to mercury compounds as well as organic forms to inorganic forms and visa versa. Additionally, mercury compounds in living organisms generally concentrate in certain types of tissue and are passed along the food chain [6]. Currently, forty-two states have published advisories on eating certain fresh water fish due to contamination with mercury compounds, generally methymercury. The New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has issued an advisory for eating freshwater fish as follows:

• children under the age of 7 are advised not to eat more than a single serving of 3 ounces per month
• women who are pregnant or who may become pregnant and women who are breast-feeding should only eat a single 8 ounce serving per month.
• All others should not eat more than four 8 ounce servings per month.

DHHS also advises that eating one can of canned tuna per week should not pose a risk to pregnant or nursing women and young children. Relative to other salt water fish, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommends that pregnant women and women who may become pregnant limit their consumption of shark and swordfish to no more than one meal a month. All others should limit their intake of these saltwater fish to 7 ounces per week [7]. The FDA advisory may be revised in the near future. For further details contact the state Public Health Department; in New Hampshire: DHHS Public Information Office at (603) 271-4462 or the Bureau of Health Risk Assessment's web page at www.dhhs.state.nh.us/bhra. A copy of the current fish advisory for New Hampshire is found in Appendix 1.

Acute exposures, i.e. short duration to high levels, can result in early symptoms being exhibited. Exposure to high levels of mercury will affect the nervous system and kidneys. Acute exposures can also affect the respiratory, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems, resulting in lung damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, skin irritation and eye irritation. It can also increase the heart rate and blood pressure of the victim. Fatal exposures to high levels of mercury vapor have been reported in the research literature, the cause of death given as sever damage to lung tissues resulting in loss of respiratory function [6].

Chronic exposure, i.e. elevated levels of mercury over a long period of time, on the other hand will not be immediately noticeable. Over time however, symptoms will begin to appear. The nervous system is the most critically affected and retains mercury longer than other parts of the body. Also of high concern are the kidneys, which have a remarkable capacity to concentrate mercury and show the highest levels following exposure. Other organs can also be affected, but to a lesser degree. Symptoms can include tremors, vision and hearing difficulties, insomnia, weakness, memory loss, headache, irritability, shyness and nervousness. Another condition is acrodynia which is characterized by itching, swelling, flushing, pink-colored palms and soles of the feet, excessive perspiration and rashes as well as weakness or pain in joints [6].

The route of exposure is also a significant factor. For elemental mercury, the easiest means of entry is by inhaling mercury vapors in the air. Once in the lungs, the mercury is rapidly and efficiently transferred to other parts of the body. Studies have shown that from 74 to 80% of mercury which is inhaled is retained in the body. In particular, this mercury can effect the nervous system and the kidneys. Elemental mercury can also easily be passed through the placenta to fetuses of pregnant women. Absorption through the skin is the next means of exposure of concern. Cuts, open wounds or lesions accentuate the hazard by this route of entry in that such breaks in the skin's protective barrier make it easier for the mercury to get into the body and be transported by the blood to the target organs. In a mercury contaminated atmosphere, more than 97% of the mercury that gets into the body is through the respiratory system, and less than 3% is absorbed through the skin. Ingestion of elemental mercury is not considered a high threat [6]. Little of the mercury , an estimated 0.1% of the total ingested, is absorbed in the intestines. Note: this is not applicable to a number of mercury containing compounds, some of which are easily absorbed when ingested.

Ingested elemental mercury is passed from the body in the feces. Inhaled and absorbed mercury can leave the body through exhaled breath, urine and feces. As noted above, once the mercury is absorbed into the body, it accumulates in the brain and kidneys where it can stay for long periods of time [6].

Toxic exposures or doses are often measured in an amount per unit of body weight. A larger body in essence dilutes or spreads out the amount of toxin absorbed over a larger amount of tissue. Conversely, the same amount of toxin absorbed by a smaller body will result in a higher concentration simply because there is less of the tissue into which the toxin is absorbed. This results in a more pronounced effect. Young children and fetuses are of particular concern. They are vulnerable to serious consequences such as delayed development, as manifested in the age by which the child learns to walk and talk, and in learning difficulties. In children, the body is still developing, and the disruption caused by elemental mercury, especially to the nervous system, will be more pronounced and the effects more serious.

To date, there has been no indication that elemental mercury is a carcinogen to either humans or animals. While there has been no documented effect from mercury exposure on fertility, there has been a reported increase in labor complications and spontaneous abortions in women exposed to mercury. There is no conclusive evidence that mercury exposures cause chromosome damage [6].

Mercury in the body can be easily and accurately detected. These tests do not identify the form of mercury, however. Blood and urine tests are the most common means of testing for mercury. They can assess both short and long term exposure to mercury. Such tests are also used to predict the effects of mercury exposures. The level of mercury in the exhaled breath can also be measured, but is useful only within a few days of a short-term exposure [6].

Sources of Mercury

Elemental mercury can be found in a variety of locations. Some of these are common and well known, others can be quite surprising. Common instruments such as thermometers, blood pressure cuffs, and barometers often contain elemental mercury. The silver liquid must be visible in such instruments, as its level is the means of reading the instrument. These are commonly found in homes, medical facilities, and in schools. Note: if a thermometer has a red liquid in it, it is not a mercury containing instrument, but rather is using a dyed alcohol.

Mercury can also be found in such things as thermostats and other electrical equipment where mercury switches are used. Mercury is also found in florescent light bulbs and some batteries. Amalgam (a mixture or alloy of mercury) is used to provide the reflective surface or silvering of mirrors. The "silver" dental fillings many of us have are an amalgam combining mercury and a silver/tin alloy.

Schools used free elemental mercury in a number of demonstrations and experiments in chemistry, physics, and physical science classes. It is also found in a number of laboratory thermometers, barometers and so forth. New legislation in New Hampshire (effective January 01, 2001) prohibits the use of mercury and mercury compounds in schools, grades kindergarten to twelfth. However, measuring devices and thermometers containing mercury are allowed in school laboratories if no adequate substitute exists [8]. As a result of this legislation, mercury issues in New Hampshire schools will decrease, though probably will not be completely eliminated.

Industrial settings were mercury can be used are many and diverse. It can be found as a component in a number of different types of machinery and instruments as part of switches or in indicators. It is used to make alloys (amalgams), in the production of chlorine and caustic soda, and in the mining of gold. It is used in lamps, boilers, and in the nuclear industry as a neutron absorber [2].

While less common, mercury can also be found in hobby laboratories. There are various religious sects that use mercury in ceremonies as well. Finally, bomb makers may use mercury switches in their work as either an anti-tampering device, or in the detonation circuit. In summary, mercury could be almost any where, and in any amount.

Monitoring for Elemental Mercury

In detecting the presence of elemental mercury, there are three basic methods that can be used on site. They each have different levels of detection and sophistication. Each has its use and limitations when the conditions are appropriate.

Visual Detection and Monitoring Methods

The most basic method for gross detection of elemental mercury is simply visual with the unaided eye. This method is good for locating beads of mercury that have been spilled or released. Obviously, the larger the beads of mercury, the easier they are to detect. However, it is surprising just how small a bead of mercury can be seen with the un-aided eye. To assist in locating mercury visually, it is helpful to use a good flashlight with a intense beam. Holding the flashlight at an acute angle to the surface, the beads of mercury will reflect the light and shine. This makes it easier to locate even tiny beads of mercury. This technique will be most effective in a darkened room or area, but is also effective in normal light.

Visual detection works best on hard surfaces such as a tile floor or counter top. As the surface becomes increasingly rough, it becomes easier to miss small beads of mercury as they are hidden in depressions, cracks, and so forth. This method is probably least effective in thick carpeting and similar surfaces as the beads are down in between the fibers. Still, with the use of a flashlight held at a less acute angle, tiny beads can be observed on and in between fibers and in cracks etc. However, it is more likely that not all the mercury on rough surfaces will be observed and remediated.

There are commercially available products that can assist in the visual detection of mercury. Generally marketed as indicators, these powders are spread in the immediate area of the spill and left for a period of time. These indicators contain sulfur compounds which will turn orange or red. Response teams can make their own indicator by mixing a 0.5% solution of sodium sulfide in water. Sprayed on the affected area, the solution will show as a dark, reddish brown stain when it comes in contact with mercury [9].

Detection of Elemental Mercury Vapors

Looking for beads of mercury can be used when cleaning up spills, but it will only work for accumulations that can be seen by the human eye. Visual methodology will not detect mercury vapors. Since mercury vaporizes, and inhalation is the means of entry that is most common, and most efficient, detection of vapors can be critical. This is especially true for situations where large amounts of mercury have been spilled, and/or the time frame is more than a couple of days.

Also, the question is often raised after a release of any toxin of whether or not a complete or sufficient cleanup has been accomplished. In the case of mercury, the best answer to this question is provided by monitoring for mercury vapors. Although mercury is a naturally occurring element, and mercury contamination of the environment is wide spread, most of this contamination is not in the form of elemental mercury, but in mercury compounds. In monitoring for mercury vapors, only elemental mercury will be detected. Therefore, it is a good method of verifying the effectiveness of a remediation effort.

Depending on the situation, various levels of mercury vapors in the air are considered acceptable. OSHA has set limits that are considered to be low enough so that exposure for 8 hours per day, five days per week will not cause adverse health effects in a normal adult male [3]. We would want to see levels much lower for an enclosed classroom where young children will spend their day due to their greater susceptibility to ill effects from exposure. The following table provides some of these levels of mercury vapor in air as they are recommended, accepted and/or used in New Hampshire.

Table 1.2 Mercury Concentrations in Air

compiled from [3] and [4]

Detection Tubes

Several manufacturers make Detector Tubes or Colometric Tubes that will detect elemental mercury vapors in air. Generally these tubes will measure concentrations down to 0.05 mg/m3. The upper detection limits vary from 2 to 13 mg/m3. Detection tubes can be used in initial air monitoring at large spills or highly contaminated sites to determine air quality and assist in determining the appropriate personal protective equipment. They are also useful in industrial settings to measure compliance with OSHA's PEL. However, they are not sensitive enough to verify a sufficient cleanup in a residential, hospital or school settings. As noted in Table 1.2 above, the recommended cleanup level is 0.003 mg/m3, which is well below the sensitivity of the Detection Tubes.

Monitoring Badges

These devices are manufactured for industrial settings where compliance with OSHA's PEL level of 0.05mg/m3 is of concern. These are not direct reading instruments, but rather require further processing in a laboratory to obtain a reading. Their sensitivity is lower than detection tubes and give readings between 0.002 and 0.020 mg/m3. Since their sensitivity is low enough, down to 0.002 mg/m3, they can be used in monitoring the adequacy of a cleanup. However, they will not give real time measurements. The best use of monitoring badges in spill response is long term monitoring after the cleanup to verify adequacy.

Mercury Vapor Analyzers

Mercury vapor analyzers are electrical instruments, similar to Photo Ionizing Detectors and provide real time data. These portable instruments have an on-board air pump which draws in an air sample, passing it over a gold film. The gold film will absorb mercury and results in a change in the electrical resistance of the gold film proportional to the mass of mercury absorbed. This change in the electrical resistance is then converted to either a digital or analog meter reading. These instruments will register down to 0.001 mg/m3, making them suitable to monitor mercury levels and verify cleanups in schools and other sensitive areas.

These instruments require periodic maintenance and charging as does any electronic monitoring device. They are also in need of periodic purging of the mercury accumulated on the gold film. As measurements are taken and the mercury accumulates, eventually the gold film will become saturated and will no longer be able to measure mercury vapor concentrations. The unit will then have to go through a desorbtion procedure. It is also advisable to desorb any accumulated mercury at the end of each day.

These instruments are very useful in responding to significant mercury spills or where mercury has been released in sensitive areas such as schools. Their sensitivity allows them to measure to the low levels established by the NH Division of Public Health Services. Their portability make them easy to use on site while providing accurate and reliable real time data. The biggest draw back of these instruments is their high costs ($5,000 or more). Because the instruments are only measuring a single contaminant, most Haz-Mat teams are hard pressed to justify the expense of such an instrument.

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CHAPTER 2

RESIDENTIAL MERCURY SPILLS

About the Author

The author has served in New Hampshire state government since 1985 as an environmental investigator and hazardous materials emergency responder, for eleven years as the Supervisor of the Special Investigations Section. A certified HazMat Technician, he is the senior HazMat responder with the NH Dept. of Environmental Services.

He has taught a variety of hazardous materials courses as an adjunct faculty member at the NH Community & Technical College - Laconia, including Scene Control I & II, the 40 hour HAZWOPER and 8 hour refresher courses, and Environmental Crime Scene Management. From 1995 to 2001, he served as a staff instructor at the Richard M. Flynn Fire Academy in Concord NH, specializing in hazardous materials subjects. The author serves as a Training Officer at the NH Department of Environmental Services, teaching a number of safety and technical courses to DES personnel as well as local and regional emergency response personnel while continuing full time duties investigating environmental violations and responding to a wide array of hazardous materials emergencies.

The author has been awarded a B.S. degree (Summa Cum Laude) in 1974 and a M. Ed. In 1989 from Plymouth State College. He has also earned a Certificate in 1993 from the NH Community & Technical College - Laconia as a Hazardous Materials Technician. He is also a Certified Level IV Incinerator Manager/Operator and a Certified Level IV Solid Waste Facility Manager/Operator.

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